TNFα, which can be elevated in COPD, significantly increased the expression of intercellular adhesion molecules VCAM1, ICAM1, and E-selectin as well as the cytokines CCL2 (C-C motif ligand 2) and CX3CL1 (C-X3-C motif chemokine ligand 1) [136]. Here, CX3CL1 is linked to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.