TGFB1 and neoplasm: TGF-β inhibits early cancer cells by inducing cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. However, TGF-β has been shown to have cancer-promoting properties in later stages. Mouse models used to study urothelial cancer have demonstrated that combining anti-PD-1 therapy with the TGF-β antibody reduced the TGF-β pathway and induced tumor infiltration by cytotoxic T cells, resulting in tumor suppression. Similarly, another study has shown that combing ICI therapy with the TGF-β antibody resulted in improved prognosis compared with monotherapy [37].