STAT3 and cancer: In particular, tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) leads to the activation of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB, with the subsequent upregulation of several negative regulators of apoptosis, promoting cell survival and cancer progression; interleukin 6 (IL-6) activates the Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and the activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway, leading to cell survival and proliferation [93].