TNF and cancer: Moreover, radiation promotes the release of cytokines and chemokines, which leads to increased production and recruitment of fibroblast growth factor (FGF), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which activate Treg cells, bone marrow-derived suppressor cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts [10, 11].