CCL2 and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: In addition, in subjects with NAFLD, inflammation appeared as increased levels of cytokines and chemokines in peripheral blood, such as IL-6, TNF-α, CRP, and MCP-1, which further accelerated atherosclerotic CVD by increasing plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and adhesion molecules levels in endothelial cells, reducing nitric oxide production, promoting the influx of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) into macrophages, and stimulating vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation (110).