Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 VCAM-1 and intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), in particular, were found elevated both in the CSF and plasma of NS patients, likely due to their role in leukocyte adhesion and transmigration, suggesting a role of endothelial activation and dysfunction in the pathogenesis of NS [73]. Here, VCAM1 is linked to Netherton syndrome.