TNF and infection: When injury or infection occurs, microbial endotoxins such as LPS trigger signaling cascades in immune cells, primarily macrophages, that result in the production and release of antimicrobial products, such as nitric oxide, and pro-inflammatory cytokines (mainly TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β), initiating the acute inflammatory response, which prevent further damage and ultimately leads to healing and restoring of tissue function [37].