In patients with DKD, the activation of GPRs by SCFAs stimulate the production of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), improving blood glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity (Deng L. et al., 2022; Fang Q. et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2014; Lin et al., 2022; Wang Y. et al., 2022). Here, INS is linked to diabetic kidney disease.