TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: In addition to the inflammatory characteristics of the intestinal tract in IBD, the activation of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and Th17 cells in breast tissue leads to the upregulation of various cytokines, including TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1, IL-12 and IL-17; these changes promote the upregulation of IL17B and its receptor (IL17RB) in malignant mammary epithelial cells and the expression of CXCL1 in breast cancer cells, thus activating the AKT/NF-κB, ERK1/2, NF-κB and Bcl-2 signaling pathways and promoting inflammation and the growth, metastasis, and development of breast cancer.