TNF and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: In hrHPV-induced cervical cancer and HNSCC, expression of immunostimulatory T helper 1 (Th1) cytokines such as interleukin 2 (IL-2), IL-12, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and IFNs is downregulated, whilst Th2 proinflammatory and immunosuppressive cytokines are overexpressed [84,85,86,87,88].