TNF and breast cancer: Annexin A2 released by BC cells’ SEVs can induce macrophage-mediated activation of either p38 MAPK, nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), or STAT3 pathways, thus increasing IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α secretion, thereby contributing to the formation of a premetastatic inflammatory microenvironment in distant organs such as the lung and brain [186].