TNF and inflammatory response: Since intestinal OS causes intestinal inflammation, the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (including tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interleukin-1β [IL-1β], IL-6, IL-8, and interferon-γ) that are released from intestinal immune cells and mucosal epithelial cells upon increased production of ROS which functions as immunoregulatory molecules to activate immune cells causing inflammation are good biological indicators in assessing the intestinal condition.