TNF and ulcerative colitis: In a rat model of chronic ulcerative colitis, LVA purified from Macrocystis pyrifera administered orally at a concentration of 0.5% (w/v) in drinking water for six weeks reduced the colonic damage score and serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, LTB4, and PGE2, as well as colonic mucosal production of IL-6, TNF-α, and LTB4 [54].