TGFB1 and neoplasm: TGF‐β signaling plays an important role in tumor initiation by controlling numerous cellular functions including proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation.[19] The Rap1 and PI3K‐AKT signaling pathways exert a wide range of biological effects in tumorigenesis, including anti‐apoptotic effects and the promotion of cell survival.[20] Abnormal or excessive activation of the MAPK signaling pathway plays an important role in the malignant transformation and evolution of cells.[21]