Higher proportion of optimal HbA1c level is also associated with older age, shorter history of diabetes, tertiary education, unemployment, non-smokers, higher-level physical activity, presence of hypertension, presence of chronic kidney disease, absence of dyslipidaemia, as well as the use and non-use of specific treatments (insulin, oral hypoglycaemic agents, lipid-lowering agents, and renal dialysis). Here, INS is linked to diabetes mellitus.