TNF and infection: As demonstrated for other viruses, melatonin exhibits anti-inflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo by preventing the overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and a secondary surge of proinflammatory cytokines including interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and NF-κB in VEEV88, CVB382, influenza A virus25 and RHDV49 infections.