Based on the results of the ex vivo study, clinical uses of atractylodin or β-eudesmol for the treatment of cholangiocarcinoma is of concern for the risk of toxicity due to CYP3A4 (equivalent to mCYP3A11) inhibition following chronic dosing, as well as the metabolic interaction with the coadministered drugs that are metabolized by CYP3A4. Here, CYP3A4 is linked to cholangiocarcinoma.