KRAS and colorectal carcinoma: Within each of these subtypes of CRC, single nucleotide variants (SNVs), copy number variants (CNVs) and chromosomal translocations have been reported to affect critical growth-controlling pathways (e.g., WNT, MAPK/PI3K, TGF-β, TP53), and mutations in genes such as c-MYC, KRAS, BRAF, PIK3CA, PTEN, SMAD2 and SMAD4 can be used as predictive markers for patient outcomes.