TNF and ischemia: In cases of traumatic neural damage, secondary injury of neural structures within several minutes of primary injury causes hemorrhage, swelling, ischemia, disrupts feeding vessels, and damages neural tissues (Aiyer et al., 2021), and pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as interleukin-1 and 6 (IL-1 and -6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), play significant roles in the progression and aggravation of neural structure damage in most processes associated with neural injury (Qian et al., 2022).