We cannot rule out at present that apart from TGFβ/activin-like ligands from host and parasite, also BMPs might have a role in Echinococcus BC formation, particularly since mammalian BMP2 both stimulated the activity of EmTR4/EmTR2 (Figure 3) and accelerated BC formation when added to the co-culture system (Figure 6). Here, TGFB1 is linked to breast cancer.