IRS1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: Similarly, expression of autophagy-related markers including LC3, Beclin 1, Atg5 and Atg7 was found to be decreased in obese mice (21), while obese and T2D patients livers displayed reduced mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) activity, and defective insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) phosphorylation (23).