However, more recently, it has been regarded as immunologically similar to immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS), which can be induced by restarting highly active anti-retroviral therapy against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and the discontinuation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) inhibitor therapy against rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases [42, 43]. Here, TNF is linked to HIV infectious disease.