ACE and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: ACEIs: angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARBs: angiotensin receptor blockers; ARNI: angiotensin receptor/neprilysin inhibitor; BB: beta blocker; CKD: chronic kidney disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HF: heart failure; HF: heart failure; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (<50%); HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (≥ 50%); MRA: mineral corticoid antagonist; NYHA: New York Heart Association; OSAS: obstructive sleep apnea syndrome; SGLT2i: sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors; WHF: worsening heart failure.