TNF and atherosclerosis: By contrast, in atherosclerosis and following vascular injury, PVAT is heavily infiltrated by immune cells (21, 43, 44) and predominantly produces contracting factors such as norepinephrine and reactive oxygen species, as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα, CCL2 (19, 20, 45, 46).