Loss of gut microbiota increased TAA-induced hepatic fibrosis as revealed by histology, increased bile acids in serum and liver, decreased body weights, increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities, and increased expression of proinflammatory factor and hepatic fibrosis gene mRNAs (interleukin-1 (Il1), Il6, tumor necrosis factor α (Tnfa) and Timp1) (Supplementary Fig. 3a–f). Here, TNF is linked to Hepatic fibrosis.