We treated THP-1 macrophages with purified S1 protein to evaluate the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, CXCL10, and IFN-γ [19,20] due to their association with hyperinflammation in SARS and COVID-19 patients, as well as the antiviral cytokine IFN-β, since it restricts SARS-CoV-2 infection [21]. Here, TNF is linked to severe acute respiratory syndrome.