TNF and cancer: In cancer immunotherapy, many inhibitors of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, TGF-β, and CSF, have been used in combination with anti-PD-L1 or anti-PD-1 agents, and have shown promising improvement in therapeutic outcomes, in comparison to monotherapy agents Cytokines, which exert therapeutic efficacy by potentiating immune response and inhibiting the immunosuppressive activity.