INS and atherosclerosis: These abnormalities include impaired insulin signaling of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3Kinase/AKT) pathway that is associated with serine hyperphosphorylation of the insulin receptor substrate 2 (IRS2) signaling pathway, and decreased insulin-stimulated NO production with decreased vasodilation and proconstrictive, prothrombotic, and pro-atherosclerotic effects on the arterial vessels with accelerated atherosclerosis [12,14].