TNF and major depressive disorder: Further, amitriptyline reduced the release of IL-1β and TNF-α from rat mixed glial and microglial cultures [35], reduced astrogliosis and showed anti-inflammatory effects (reduction in IL-1β protein levels) in a model of multiple system atrophy [36] and in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory model of depression (reduction in IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ) [37].