The alarmin HMGB-1 was associated with IL-1b and IL-16; HMGB-1 increases chemotaxis and activation of leukocytes ex vivo, triggers microglial activation and neuroinflammation, and has been closely associated with detrimental effects of brain injury in traumatic and non-traumatic animal and cellular models.53 TBI-induced microglial activation and increased expression of proinflammatory mediators, such as HMGB-1 and IL-6, have been associated with cerebral edema and neurological deficits.16,54 Our results support the likelihood of HMGB-1 as a marker for brain-specific trauma in humans. Here, IL6 is linked to brain edema.