TNF and post-traumatic stress disorder: Despite some conflicting findings11–14, preclinical models of PTSD, for the most part, suggest that acute and chronic stress promote structural and proteomic changes in microglia with the release of proinflammatory mediators [e.g., interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α)]15 and cytotoxic factors16.