HMGB1 and epilepsy: Particularly in prolonged seizures, e.g., in status epilepticus and drug-resistant epilepsy, the release and upregulation of pro-inflammmatory cytokines [IL-1β, TNF, IL-6, prostaglandin E2, and a high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) complement system] have been studied not only in rodents but also in the brain samples of patients (upregulation of IL-1β, HMGB1, IL-1R1, TLR4) and in the CSF of humans (high IL-6) (8–11).