TNF and pulmonary arterial hypertension: Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (PAH) is caused due to endothelial dysfunction, which enhances vascular inflammation due to activation of caspase-1 and caspase-11 in pyroptosis.67 Caspase-11 in mice, homologous to caspase-4 in humans, was activated in PAH rat models and injury simulated human pulmonary artery endothelial cells (HPAECs) by TNF α.