TLR4 and colonic neoplasm: LPS activates Toll‐like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling in HCT116 and SW480 cells, inducing the secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF‐C) which further promotes the progression and metastasis of colon cancer.[54, 55] In addition, LPS stimulates macrophages to express pro‐inflammatory cytokines, such as C‐C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5), IL‐6, and IL‐1β.