In humans, most experience with experimental mucosal adjuvants has been gained with intranasal influenza vaccines adjuvanted with heat labile toxin of E.coli (LT), and toll-like receptor agonists such as monophosphoryl lipid A (TLR4), CpG (TLR9) and poly-IC:LC (TLR3)46. This evidence concerns the gene LTA and influenza.