TNF and glioblastoma: After radiation exposure, the inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and type I and type II interferons are overexpressed in GBM cells, leading to upregulation of VCAM-1 expression (Corroyer-Dulmont et al., 2020), while the upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1) and VCAM1 in GBM blood vessels results in the wide infiltration of T lymphocytes in GBM tissues.