TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Macrophages can primarily polarize into two subtypes based on the microenvironmental cues: the classically activated (M1) macrophages or alternatively activated (M2) ones.[11] M1 macrophages are able to secret a variety of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin‐6 (IL‐6) and tumor necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) in response to interferon‐gamma (IFN‐γ) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS), leading to the exacerbation of IBD development.