CTLA4 and melanoma: However, growing evidence from preclinical studies (Liu et al., 2016) and phase 1–2 clinical trials in stage III melanoma testing neoadjuvant ICB directed against PD-1 ± cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (anti-CTLA-4; Blank et al., 2018; Patel et al., 2023) indicates that neoadjuvant ICB is superior to adjuvant ICB.