These include pathways not previously implicated in pathway enrichment analyses for lung function—such as PI3K–Akt signaling, integrin pathways, endochondral ossification, calcium signaling, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and dilated cardiomyopathy—as well as those previously implicated via individual genes5 such as TNF signaling, actin cytoskeleton, AGE–RAGE signaling, Hedgehog signaling and cancers. Here, TNF is linked to dilated cardiomyopathy.