TNF and postmenopausal osteoporosis: Immune cells including subtypes of T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils and mast cells influence bone cells via factors including inflammatory cytokines, the interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor -α (TNF-α), osteoprotegerin/receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-β ligand (OPG/RANKL) and other mediators, by increasing osteoblast apoptosis and stimulating osteoclastogenesis, thereby triggering bone loss during postmenopausal osteoporosis (Du et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2020; Fischer and Haffner-Luntzer, 2022).