TNF and Cognitive impairment: Cognitive impairment of rats was improved by pretreatment with GA before surgery, as were neuroinflammation [expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)] and Alzheimer's disease-related pathology (Tau phosphorylation of AT-8, Ser369, and Aβ40–42) in the hippocampal region [18].