APLN and atherosclerosis: Upregulation of PPARα (a well-known modulator of lipid metabolism, antioxidant defense, mitochondrial and endothelial functions, atherosclerosis, and inflammation) and inhibition of apoptosis (enhanced Bcl-2 levels and decreased Bax and cleaved caspase-3 levels) and oxidative stress via the PI3K and p38MAPK pathways has been characterized as the major determinant of apelin’s cardio-protective effects [96,97].