PTGS2 and cholangiocarcinoma: In agreement with the present study, anti-cancer roles of GM-CSF are shown in colon (COLO 205) (Nebiker et al., 2014), prostate (patient tissues) (Wei et al., 2016), CCA (KKU-213A) (Panya et al., 2018), bladder (MGHU3, UMUC3) (Hori et al., 2019), cervical (patient tissues) (Jiang et al., 2015) and esophageal cancers (Eca-109, EC9706) (Zhang et al., 2017), through activations of CD16-positive monocytes and effector T-cells, but suppressions of M2-mediated angiogenesis and pro-inflammatory mediator productions (e.g., cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase).