TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: As indicated by Casey et al. [36], the effect of ethanol on the gut may be potentially associated with the development of inflammatory bowel disease and impairment of the gut barrier function and permeability [37], along with its proinflammatory actions, including decreasing T-cell activity [38] and increasing TNF-α, interleukin-1, and interleukin-6 levels [39].