A case–control study demonstrated higher levels of TNF-α, IL-8, IL-1β and lower levels of TGF-β, FOXP3+ Treg and IL-10 in the ileum of surgical NEC patients compared with matched controls (patients with spontaneous intestinal perforation/congenital intestinal atresia) [18]. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and necrotizing enterocolitis.