VCAM1 and endothelial dysfunction: LDL-C oxidation and proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1, IL-4 or IL-6, and IFN-gamma, may induce endothelial dysfunction, migration, and the proliferation of smooth muscle cells, the emergence of foam cells, and the expression of leukocyte and monocyte adhesion molecules, primarily vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and E-selectin [6].