TNF and diabetes mellitus: In DM and AD mouse models, chronic treatment of pioglitazone (15 and 30 mg/kg) significantly attenuated TNF-α and IL-6, compared to an Aβ-treated group (p < 0.05), the increase in IL-6 and TNF-α expression which indicates the involvement of inflammatory activity, pioglitazone significantly reduced the neuroinflammation response (e.g., reducing the inflammatory cytokines TNF-a, IL-6, IL-8, and so on) and cerebral oxidative stress and, thus, might play a neuroprotective role associated with improvements in inflammation-related neuropathy and insulin signalling pathways [48,49].