TNF and Alzheimer disease: The proinflammatorycytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-1β(IL-1β) are involved in the increased permeability of brainendothelial cells,17,18 and, most recently, the presenceof these cytokines has been reported around the amyloid-β plaquesin the post-mortem brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease.19 Therefore, to understand the protective effectof the minor ecdysteroids, compounds 2–4 were also tested with proinflammatory cytokines.