TLR4 and immunodeficiency disease: Core immuno-inflammatory pathways such as Toll, JAK/STAT, and immunodeficiency (Imd) equivalent to TLR-4, JAK/STAT and TNF pathways in mammals (Hoffmann and Reichhart, 2002; Hoffman, 2003; Myllymäki et al., 2014) are also present in Drosophila. These innate immune-inflammatory pathways, whether in humans or Drosophila, respond to infection and aging/injury by promoting the expression of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs in fly and humans) (Myllymäki et al., 2014).