TNF and autoimmune disease: Upon screening of these metabolites at various concentrations in an in vitro model of autoimmune disease as described earlier, we found that 4 of our selected compounds—spermidine, 1-MNA, PEA, and OEA (see Figure 3G–J)—were able to ameliorate TNF-α secretion from stimulated macrophage more potently than treatment with 1-mM BHB at between 100 and 10,000 times lower concentrations (see Figure 4A).